Atlantis
The fifth space shuttle, Atlantis, was constructed at Rockwell International’s factory in Palmdale, California between March 30, 1980 and April 10, 1984. The length of time required to construct the shuttle was significantly reduced due to techniques perfected while building the previous crafts.
Atlantis flew on thirty-three missions, the first of which was STS-51-J, launched on October 3, 1985. It was the second of two missions dedicated to the Department of Defense to launch communication satellites, following STS-51-C. On June 29, 1995, on STS-71, Atlantis became the first shuttle to dock with the Soviet space station, Mir. Atlantis conducted seven of the nine total shuttle dockings with Mir. Throughout Atlantis’ lifespan, the shuttle underwent two major overhauls, called Orbiter Maintenance Down Periods (OMDPs), in total, the two overhauls lasted about three years. In fact, Atlantis suffered from so many problems during its life that some technicians took to nicknaming it ‘Britney’, after Britney Spears.
The final mission in the Shuttle program, STS-135, was flown by Atlantis, and was launched on July 8, 2011. The mission was intended to re-supply the International Space station in event the commercial rockets, designed by SpaceX were to be delayed. After its completion of STS-135, Atlantis, like the other shuttles, was de-commissioned and the shuttle is currently housed at the visitors center at Kennedy Space Center in Florida.
Atlantis flew on thirty-three missions, the first of which was STS-51-J, launched on October 3, 1985. It was the second of two missions dedicated to the Department of Defense to launch communication satellites, following STS-51-C. On June 29, 1995, on STS-71, Atlantis became the first shuttle to dock with the Soviet space station, Mir. Atlantis conducted seven of the nine total shuttle dockings with Mir. Throughout Atlantis’ lifespan, the shuttle underwent two major overhauls, called Orbiter Maintenance Down Periods (OMDPs), in total, the two overhauls lasted about three years. In fact, Atlantis suffered from so many problems during its life that some technicians took to nicknaming it ‘Britney’, after Britney Spears.
The final mission in the Shuttle program, STS-135, was flown by Atlantis, and was launched on July 8, 2011. The mission was intended to re-supply the International Space station in event the commercial rockets, designed by SpaceX were to be delayed. After its completion of STS-135, Atlantis, like the other shuttles, was de-commissioned and the shuttle is currently housed at the visitors center at Kennedy Space Center in Florida.
Discovery
Of the five existing shuttles, many consider Discovery to be the most distinguished. Construction of the fourth shuttle began on January 29, 1979, at the Rockwell International factory in California; construction concluded in 1983. Discovery’s first mission, STS-41-D, launched on August 30, 1984; in total, Discovery flew 39 missions, the most of any shuttle. After both the Challenger and Columbia disasters, Discovery flew the “Return to flight missions”, which were the first missions flown after a significant disaster. The first Return to flight mission was STS-26, launched on September 29, 1988 and STS-114, launched on July 26, 2005.
During its time of service, Discovery deployed thirty-one satellites, including the Hubble Space Telescope in STS-31. Discovery first docked with the International Space Station thirteen times, beginning with STS-96. Discovery’s final flight, STS-133, was launched on March 9, 2011. Currently Discovery resides at the Smithsonian Air and Space Museum subsidiary Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center, in Washington D.C.
During its time of service, Discovery deployed thirty-one satellites, including the Hubble Space Telescope in STS-31. Discovery first docked with the International Space Station thirteen times, beginning with STS-96. Discovery’s final flight, STS-133, was launched on March 9, 2011. Currently Discovery resides at the Smithsonian Air and Space Museum subsidiary Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center, in Washington D.C.
Challenger
When NASA decided retrofitting Enterprise would be more expensive than simply building an entirely new shuttle, Challenger was born. The third shuttle progressed through two phases of construction: The first, from 1972 to 1978 built the shuttle; the second, from 1979 to 1981, retrofitted the shuttle for space travel. Challenger’s first flight, STS-6, launched on April 4, 1983, was a rousing success. In total, the shuttle was launched ten times between 1983 and 1986; Challenger’s tenth and final flight, STS-51-L, was on January 28, 1986.
When the shuttle exploded one minute and thirteen seconds after launch, the nation and world was in shock. Upon investigation, NASA officials discovered the cause of the explosion was the failure of O-rings in the shuttle’s right solid rocket booster, caused by the extremely cold temperature, below thirty degrees, on the day of launch. The loss of Challenger and its seven-member crew was a national tragedy. Until the reason for the explosion could be determined, all launches were canceled until 1988. Much like the Apollo 1 disaster, the Challenger disaster spurred tremendous investigation, scrutiny and doubt in NASA by the public and government.
When the shuttle exploded one minute and thirteen seconds after launch, the nation and world was in shock. Upon investigation, NASA officials discovered the cause of the explosion was the failure of O-rings in the shuttle’s right solid rocket booster, caused by the extremely cold temperature, below thirty degrees, on the day of launch. The loss of Challenger and its seven-member crew was a national tragedy. Until the reason for the explosion could be determined, all launches were canceled until 1988. Much like the Apollo 1 disaster, the Challenger disaster spurred tremendous investigation, scrutiny and doubt in NASA by the public and government.
Columbia
The first space shuttle in the Shuttle program was named Columbia. Rockwell International began construction of the shuttle in 1975. Columbia’s first flight, STS-1, launched on April 12, 1981, from launch pad 39-A at Kenned Space Center in Florida. Upon landing at Edwards Air Force Base in California, it was transported back to KSC aboard a specially modified 747.
In total, Columbia flew twenty-eight missions, with twenty-seven successful landings. The final flight, STS-107, ended with the shuttle’s disintegration during landing on February 1, 2003. All seven crewmembers were killed. The destruction was caused by a piece of foam from the external tank, which broke off and damaged a thermal tile on the front of the left wing. A patchwork of 24,000 tiles laid out over the front edges and bottom of the shuttle’s body provides protection from the heat of re-entry, which can reach 3,000 degrees. Columbia was the first spacecraft to re-use a thermal protection system.
In total, Columbia flew twenty-eight missions, with twenty-seven successful landings. The final flight, STS-107, ended with the shuttle’s disintegration during landing on February 1, 2003. All seven crewmembers were killed. The destruction was caused by a piece of foam from the external tank, which broke off and damaged a thermal tile on the front of the left wing. A patchwork of 24,000 tiles laid out over the front edges and bottom of the shuttle’s body provides protection from the heat of re-entry, which can reach 3,000 degrees. Columbia was the first spacecraft to re-use a thermal protection system.
The Space Shuttle Era
The American space program was originally made to rely on single-use vehicles. As one might expect, this was a phenomenally expensive decision. To remedy this, in 1969, NASA began developing plans to construct a reusable, large crew ‘space truck’. The space shuttle served three primary purposes: transporting equipment and crew to the International Space Station, deployment of scientific satellites and routine maintenance.
From 1981 to 2011, the five space-worthy shuttles, Challenger, Columbia, Endeavour, Discovery and Atlantis launched 135 times. All missions were launched from Kennedy Space Center in Florida and, though intended to return to KSC upon landing, when an alternate landing site had to be used, the shuttle would be flown back to KSC aboard a specially modified 747. Each launch was facilitated with the use two solid rocket boosters and an external fuel tank, all three of which were discarded after launch. Unlike the capsules used prior to 1981, which could accommodate up to three astronauts, the space shuttle could hold up to eight crew members.
The first shuttle, named Enterprise, after the space ship in the original Star Trek TV series, was constructed in California beginning in 1972 and was delivered to Edwards Air Force Base in 1977, where it was rigorously test before being delivered to KSC in 1979. Although NASA originally intended to retrofit Enterprise to become space worthy, it was decided this process would be too expensive.
From 1981 to 2011, the five space-worthy shuttles, Challenger, Columbia, Endeavour, Discovery and Atlantis launched 135 times. All missions were launched from Kennedy Space Center in Florida and, though intended to return to KSC upon landing, when an alternate landing site had to be used, the shuttle would be flown back to KSC aboard a specially modified 747. Each launch was facilitated with the use two solid rocket boosters and an external fuel tank, all three of which were discarded after launch. Unlike the capsules used prior to 1981, which could accommodate up to three astronauts, the space shuttle could hold up to eight crew members.
The first shuttle, named Enterprise, after the space ship in the original Star Trek TV series, was constructed in California beginning in 1972 and was delivered to Edwards Air Force Base in 1977, where it was rigorously test before being delivered to KSC in 1979. Although NASA originally intended to retrofit Enterprise to become space worthy, it was decided this process would be too expensive.
The end of the Space Race
Although the Apollo 11 Moon landing was a symbolic victory for the United States, the 1975 Apollo-Soyuz Test Project served as the political end of the Space Race.
On May 23, 1972, during a visit to Moscow, President Nixon and Soviet Chairman Kosygin signed an agreement that allowed a joint space operation between the two superpowers. Both ships, an Apollo command/service module and a Soyuz, launched on July 15, 1975 and achieved docking on July 17. The two ships remained attached for forty-four hours, during which the two crews conducted scientific experiments and interviews on the other’s national news stations. The Apollo crew consisted of Commander Tom Stafford, Command pilot Vance Brand and Docking pilot Deke Slayton. Although an original member of the Mercury Seven astronaut group, Slayton was grounded until 1972 due to a heart issue.
ASTP was the final flight in the Apollo program and the last manned flight until the Space Shuttle program was initiated six years later.
On May 23, 1972, during a visit to Moscow, President Nixon and Soviet Chairman Kosygin signed an agreement that allowed a joint space operation between the two superpowers. Both ships, an Apollo command/service module and a Soyuz, launched on July 15, 1975 and achieved docking on July 17. The two ships remained attached for forty-four hours, during which the two crews conducted scientific experiments and interviews on the other’s national news stations. The Apollo crew consisted of Commander Tom Stafford, Command pilot Vance Brand and Docking pilot Deke Slayton. Although an original member of the Mercury Seven astronaut group, Slayton was grounded until 1972 due to a heart issue.
ASTP was the final flight in the Apollo program and the last manned flight until the Space Shuttle program was initiated six years later.
A new vision
By 1973, the United States had conquered space through short trips, but the time came to colonize space. With the May 14, 1973 launch of the Skylab space station, the U.S. had begun this process. The May launch of the station is considered a relative failure due to severe damage sustained during launch. The damage, which extended to the meteoroid shield and two solar panels, was repaired by the first manned flight to the station, Skylab 2, which launched eleven days later. The damage threatened the survival of the entire station, from meteoroid strikes, extreme heat and lack of power. The third mission, Skylab 3, was launched July 28, 1973 lasted fifty-nine days. Skylab 4, the final mission in the Skylab program, launched November 16, 1973 and lasted eighty-four days, the longest duration in space at that time. On July 11, 1979 the space station reentered Earth’s atmosphere and disintegrated over Perth, Australia.
Skylab offered a unique opportunity to study the Sun, free from the distorting effect of the Earth’s atmosphere. During the six-year lifespan of the space station, astronauts were able to confirm the existence of coronal holes and observe solar prominences. In addition to the Sun, the astronauts studied the effects of weightlessness on humans and spiders.
Skylab offered a unique opportunity to study the Sun, free from the distorting effect of the Earth’s atmosphere. During the six-year lifespan of the space station, astronauts were able to confirm the existence of coronal holes and observe solar prominences. In addition to the Sun, the astronauts studied the effects of weightlessness on humans and spiders.
The successful failure
NASA has experienced numerous failures throughout its manned programs: Liberty Bell 7 and Apollo 1. The third scheduled Moon landing, Apollo 13, was the first failure in space. Fifty-six hours after the mission launched on April 11, 1970, Commander Jim Lovell, Command module (CM) pilot Jack Swigert and LM pilot Fred Haise heard a massive explosion, which originated in the service module beneath their feet. An unusual pressure build-up occurred in tank number 2, causing it to explode and damaged tank number 1, all three fuel cells and the entire environmental control unit, which regulated heat, water and the removal of Carbon Dioxide from the command module’s air supply.
Beyond the loss of power, frigid temperature, condensation, and lack of food and water, the most significant concern to the astronauts was the level of Carbon Dioxide in the air. The crew decided to use the LM as a lifeboat, since it still had full power and oxygen supply. The LM had enough air filters to last for forty-five hours, the expected length of a Lunar landing, but the crew required ninety hours. To accomplish this, the crew, in coordination with Mission Control, devised a method to attach the square Lithium Hydroxide canisters from the CM to the round air filters in the LM using cardboard, plastic bags and duct tape.
The crew returned to the CM after four days and found the internal temperature at 38 degrees and most electrical panels, inside and out, covered in condensation. The crew feared electrical arcing caused by the water droplets, but corrections made by engineers in the wake of the Apollo 1 disaster, prevented this. With their apprehensions calmed, the CM was successfully re-powered. When the crew jettisoned the service module a few hours before re-entry into Earth’s atmosphere, the true extent of the damage caused by the explosion became evident: one entire side of the service module was gone. Soon after this, the CM separated from the LM, passed through the atmosphere and splashed down near Hawaii.
Beyond the loss of power, frigid temperature, condensation, and lack of food and water, the most significant concern to the astronauts was the level of Carbon Dioxide in the air. The crew decided to use the LM as a lifeboat, since it still had full power and oxygen supply. The LM had enough air filters to last for forty-five hours, the expected length of a Lunar landing, but the crew required ninety hours. To accomplish this, the crew, in coordination with Mission Control, devised a method to attach the square Lithium Hydroxide canisters from the CM to the round air filters in the LM using cardboard, plastic bags and duct tape.
The crew returned to the CM after four days and found the internal temperature at 38 degrees and most electrical panels, inside and out, covered in condensation. The crew feared electrical arcing caused by the water droplets, but corrections made by engineers in the wake of the Apollo 1 disaster, prevented this. With their apprehensions calmed, the CM was successfully re-powered. When the crew jettisoned the service module a few hours before re-entry into Earth’s atmosphere, the true extent of the damage caused by the explosion became evident: one entire side of the service module was gone. Soon after this, the CM separated from the LM, passed through the atmosphere and splashed down near Hawaii.
The Eagle has landed
Every generation has a moment that unites everyone who experiences it. For those alive in 1969, the July 20th Moon landing of Apollo 11 is one such moment.
A veteran crew was chosen for the mission: Neil Armstrong commanded the mission, Buzz Aldrin piloted the Lunar Module (LM) and Michael Collins piloted the command module. The mission launched on July 16, 1969 and four days later achieved orbit around the Moon, where it remained for thirty orbits. The LM, nicknamed Eagle, separated from the Command Module and descended to the surface, where it landed in the Sea of Tranquility, a mare near the equator.
As the mission commander, NASA felt it appropriate that Armstrong be the first crew member to exit the LM and touch the surface. Armstrong and Aldrin spent twenty-one hours on the Lunar surface, though only two and a half of those were spent performing exploring the surface and placing scientific instruments. Four days later, the command module splashed down in the Pacific Ocean. Upon returning to Earth, the crew was placed in quarantine for seventeen days due to a fear of exposure to hazardous Moon life.
A veteran crew was chosen for the mission: Neil Armstrong commanded the mission, Buzz Aldrin piloted the Lunar Module (LM) and Michael Collins piloted the command module. The mission launched on July 16, 1969 and four days later achieved orbit around the Moon, where it remained for thirty orbits. The LM, nicknamed Eagle, separated from the Command Module and descended to the surface, where it landed in the Sea of Tranquility, a mare near the equator.
As the mission commander, NASA felt it appropriate that Armstrong be the first crew member to exit the LM and touch the surface. Armstrong and Aldrin spent twenty-one hours on the Lunar surface, though only two and a half of those were spent performing exploring the surface and placing scientific instruments. Four days later, the command module splashed down in the Pacific Ocean. Upon returning to Earth, the crew was placed in quarantine for seventeen days due to a fear of exposure to hazardous Moon life.
The first of many losses
With the conclusion of the Gemini Program in 1966, the Apollo Program was created to fulfill President Kennedy’s goal of putting a man on the Moon by the end of the 1960s. Because the Apollo crew was increased from a two-man to three-man crew, the command module had to be redesigned; both to be larger and to accommodate longer flight durations.
The first planned manned flight was Apollo 1, scheduled for launch on February 21, 1967. The Apollo 1 crew consisted of Commander Gus Grissom, senior pilot Ed White and pilot Roger Chaffee. Disaster struck during a test of the launch system on January 27, 1967, when a fire erupted inside the cabin. The fire was caused by a faulty wire in the floor of the capsule, which ignited the oxygen-rich atmosphere of the cabin. All three crew members were killed, the first of many deaths in the American space program.
The first planned manned flight was Apollo 1, scheduled for launch on February 21, 1967. The Apollo 1 crew consisted of Commander Gus Grissom, senior pilot Ed White and pilot Roger Chaffee. Disaster struck during a test of the launch system on January 27, 1967, when a fire erupted inside the cabin. The fire was caused by a faulty wire in the floor of the capsule, which ignited the oxygen-rich atmosphere of the cabin. All three crew members were killed, the first of many deaths in the American space program.
New possibilities
March 16, 1966 was the launch date for the sixth manned mission in the Gemini Program: Gemini 8. Neil Armstrong commanded the mission and David Scott piloted the craft; for both, this was their first space flight.
The most significant achievement of Gemini 8 was successfully docking with the Agena unmanned spacecraft, which along with the Gemini command module, was launched on top of an Atlas rocket. The prior mission, Gemini 6A, had attempted to dock with an Agena spacecraft, but was unable to do so. Gemini 8 was the first docking between two artificial satellites in human history.
Gemini 8 nearly ended in disaster when a malfunction in the orbit and attitude maneuvering system, the primary propulsion system, engine 8 in particular, caused the craft to spin out of control. Scott and Armstrong were able to correct the problem, but the mission had to be terminated earlier than expected.
The most significant achievement of Gemini 8 was successfully docking with the Agena unmanned spacecraft, which along with the Gemini command module, was launched on top of an Atlas rocket. The prior mission, Gemini 6A, had attempted to dock with an Agena spacecraft, but was unable to do so. Gemini 8 was the first docking between two artificial satellites in human history.
Gemini 8 nearly ended in disaster when a malfunction in the orbit and attitude maneuvering system, the primary propulsion system, engine 8 in particular, caused the craft to spin out of control. Scott and Armstrong were able to correct the problem, but the mission had to be terminated earlier than expected.
Watch your step
Although Project Mercury achieved many firsts in the American space program, the ensuing program, called Gemini achieved many of its own. Gemini was less of an independent project than a precursor to Apollo, in which technologies and techniques required to reach the Lunar surface were perfected. Gemini 3, commanded by Mercury astronaut Gus Grissom and piloted by John Young, was the first manned mission of the Gemini Program. The capsule, nicknamed Molly Brown, launched on March 23, 1965. The flight itself was relatively uneventful and mostly unimportant, but Gemini 3 marked the first flight of a multi-occupant command module.
Gemini 4 was the second manned mission in the Gemini program and launched on June 3, 1965. The mission was commanded by James McDivitt and piloted by Ed White, and featured the first space walk, or EVA, by an American. In addition to Ed White’s 23 minute space walk, this was also the first multi-day mission, lasting four days.
Gemini 4 was the second manned mission in the Gemini program and launched on June 3, 1965. The mission was commanded by James McDivitt and piloted by Ed White, and featured the first space walk, or EVA, by an American. In addition to Ed White’s 23 minute space walk, this was also the first multi-day mission, lasting four days.
To see the world... September 9, 2012
Faith 7, piloted by Gordon “Gordo” Cooper, was the sixth and final mission of Project Mercury. The primary goal of the mission was to test how the equipment and the human body would respond to being in space for more than a day. The mission launched May 15, 1963 and lasted thirty-four hours.
Although Cooper was not the first American to orbit the Earth, that honor belongs to John Glenn and his 1962 flight of Friendship 7, but he was the first American to remain in space for more than twenty-four hours. During the thirty-four hour flight, Gordo orbited the Earth twenty two times; each orbit lasted only eighty-eight minutes and forty-five seconds. When Cooper was not conducting experiments, photographing the Earth and napping consumed most of his time inside the craft. After Gordon, no American astronaut entered space alone.
Although Cooper was not the first American to orbit the Earth, that honor belongs to John Glenn and his 1962 flight of Friendship 7, but he was the first American to remain in space for more than twenty-four hours. During the thirty-four hour flight, Gordo orbited the Earth twenty two times; each orbit lasted only eighty-eight minutes and forty-five seconds. When Cooper was not conducting experiments, photographing the Earth and napping consumed most of his time inside the craft. After Gordon, no American astronaut entered space alone.
Disaster narrowly averted September 2, 2012
In late July 1961, only two and a half months after Alan Shepard’s historic flight, the second manned mission in the Mercury Program, Liberty Bell 7, launched from Cape Canaveral, Florida. Though the mission, piloted by Virgil “Gus” Grissom, lasted only fifteen minutes, it remains one of the most fascinating flights in the history of the American space program. The flight and splashdown proceeded as expected, though the capsule’s escape hatch, which used controlled explosives to allow quick and reliable escape for the astronaut, detonated unexpectedly. Following a failed rescue attempt, the capsule quickly filled with water and sank.
For 38 years, the capsule was thought lost to the sea, until July 20, 1999, when LB7 was recovered from the ocean floor, an astonishing 15,000 feet below the surface. The Kansas Cosmosphere was responsible for the recovery and restoration of Grissom’s capsule, making it the only flown U.S. spacecraft not owned by the Smithsonian.
For 38 years, the capsule was thought lost to the sea, until July 20, 1999, when LB7 was recovered from the ocean floor, an astonishing 15,000 feet below the surface. The Kansas Cosmosphere was responsible for the recovery and restoration of Grissom’s capsule, making it the only flown U.S. spacecraft not owned by the Smithsonian.
America's first starfarers August 27, 2012
The United States officially entered the space age on April 9, 1959 with the selection of the Mercury Seven. The seven astronauts were Grissom, Shepard, Slayton, Shirra, Glenn, Carpenter and Cooper. The Mercury Program astronauts were chosen after a long series of invasive and torturous tests that narrowed the field of candidates from one hundred and ten to seven.
On May 5, 1961, less than a month after Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin’s historic space flight , Alan Shephard became the first American and second human in space, inside the Freedom 7 capsule. The flight only lasted fifteen minutes, but the capsule traveled about 300 miles, from Cape Canaveral, Florida to waters near the Bahamas. There, Shepard and his craft were rescued by the aircraft carrier U.S.S. Lake Champlain. After the success of Shepard’s flight, the Mercury Seven became instant national heroes and celebrities.
On May 5, 1961, less than a month after Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin’s historic space flight , Alan Shephard became the first American and second human in space, inside the Freedom 7 capsule. The flight only lasted fifteen minutes, but the capsule traveled about 300 miles, from Cape Canaveral, Florida to waters near the Bahamas. There, Shepard and his craft were rescued by the aircraft carrier U.S.S. Lake Champlain. After the success of Shepard’s flight, the Mercury Seven became instant national heroes and celebrities.